The Guillotine: The Most Democratic Invention of Its Time by Alessia Carta
A Revolutionary Instrument of Equality and Controversy
The guillotine has long been regarded as one of the many instruments of capital punishment. However, its use, made famous by Dr Joseph Guillotine during the French Revolution, dates back to the 14th century, when the instrument was used on the Italian peninsula and across the Channel in Scotland (two hundred years later). One of the peculiarities of the guillotine is undoubtedly the fact that, at first, only the nobility were able to enjoy an instant and painless death. In the decades that followed, however, numerous scientists demonstrated that a severed head is in fact fully aware of its imminent fate and that this awareness is only extinguished after a few seconds. In France, the first machine was put into operation on 25 April 1792 in the Place de Grève in Paris, and soon became a powerful symbol of those painful years of terror. The condemned included the rulers of France, Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI, and it is estimated that between 15,000 and 25,000 people were executed during the revolutionary period. As mentioned above, it was Dr Joseph Guillotine who changed the course of history and the fate of this instrument of death forever. Motivated by humanitarian ideas, he proposed to extend the use of beheading to capital punishment. This is why the guillotine was nicknamed the 'national razor'. On 6 October 1789, Dr Joseph, by then a member of parliament, tabled a proposal to amend six articles of the Penal Code concerning the manner in which the death penalty was to be carried out and the treatment of the condemned, stating that "crimes of the same kind shall be punished by the same kind of punishment, whatever the rank and status of the conscious". One of the main opponents of the guillotine proposal was Charles-Henri Sanson, a famous executioner, who pointed out the high economic cost of using the machine, which would have required an extremely sharp blade. Other criticisms, more practical than humanitarian, included the possibility that the condemned man might move in the grip of terror, thus undermining the effectiveness of the operation and putting an end to the 'dream' of guaranteeing a quick and painless death for everyone.
The Invention and Symbolism of the Guillotine
However, although the proposal had been made by Dr Joseph, he refused to be entrusted with the material construction of the machine and passed the baton to Antoine Louis, permanent secretary of the Academy of Surgery, who drew up a detailed report on the construction of the machine, which he described as follows: The patient will rest his head on a log eight inches high, four inches thick and one inch wide. He will lie on his stomach with his chest raised by his elbows, his neck resting comfortably in the hollow of the log. The performer, positioned behind the machine, loosens the two ends holding the axe and drops it from above. The instrument, thanks to its weight and accelerated speed, will separate the head from the body in an instant". The practical realisation of the machine was entrusted to Tobias Schmitt, a German piano maker who won the contract by outbidding a carpenter. The latter had asked for 5660 livres, justifying the high price by the unpleasantness of the task. Schmitt, on the other hand, offered only 960 livres and won the job, which he completed in about a week. The guillotine was inaugurated with the execution of a common criminal, but was later used mainly to eliminate political enemies. The machine found a permanent home in the Carrousel, although the original intention was to erect the gallows in the places where crimes were committed. It is also interesting to note that Louis XVI himself contributed to the design of the guillotine, suggesting fundamental changes to improve its efficiency (such as the use of an angled blade). However, although this is a persistent anecdote, it lacks concrete historical evidence. Louis XVI's interest in mechanical and scientific pursuits (such as locksmithing and engineering) may have fuelled such myths, but any actual role he played in the development of the guillotine remains speculative. It was his execution by the guillotine in 1793 that became a powerful symbol of the Revolution's claim to the task of dismantling the monarchy and establishing equality. It confirmed that not even the king was above the law.
A guillotine from the time of the French Revolution
From Revolutionary Symbol to Instrument of Fear
Soon, during the French Revolution, guillotine executions took on the appearance of real public events attended by large crowds, and souvenirs and toys in the shape of the guillotine were often sold. The latter was also a surprisingly modern instrument: the last guillotine execution in France took place in 1977, while the death penalty was not abolished until 1981. From a practical point of view, the guillotine was extremely functional: it was mobile and could be transported to different locations as required. Moreover, unlike other methods of execution, the blade of the guillotine fell silently, giving the event an eerie and definitive atmosphere. Its fame was such that it became an international inspiration for several countries, including, sadly, Nazi Germany, which used an instrument very similar to the guillotine for executions during the Second World War. However, even in the context of the Second World War, sociological changes can be seen in the way the guillotine was used. In fact, during the years of the Führer, the public use of the machine was not favoured, and instead executions were carried out privately, mainly in prisons. This actually reflected a change in the perception of public execution as a spectacle, which was seen as a very effective and quick method, but also as an extremely barbaric practice. In its context, the French context, the guillotine symbolised a rational and mechanical approach to justice, the fundamental aim of which was to eliminate the human element that could make executions inaccurate or decidedly more painful. As noted above, its implementation reflected the Enlightenment belief in technology and scientific progress as tools for the betterment of society, even in such horrific areas as capital punishment. During the terror regime, the machine went from being a symbol of justice to an instrument of fear, whose spectacular public use reinforced the regime's control and at the same time intimidated the enemies of the revolution. The case was different in the Nazi context, where the guillotine became the exact opposite of a revolutionary symbol, but rather a useful tool to maintain a system of absolute control and repression. Its use was directed against dissidents and thus conveyed a message of total domination: anyone who opposed the regime would be eliminated quickly and without any possibility of appeal. Thus the Nazi regime, which presented itself as technologically advanced and rational, adopted the guillotine as a symbol of ruthless and mechanical justice, effectively removing its connection with humanity or compassion. The Nazi vision of total state control was reflected in the secrecy of executions, which made death a purely private and industrialised administrative matter. These two uses of the guillotine, though different in their intentions, reveal a disturbing truth: any instrument, even one born with the best of ideals, can be manipulated to serve ends far removed from its original principles. The history of the guillotine thus invites us to reflect on how justice and power are often intertwined in complex and contradictory ways, leaving a legacy that continues to raise ethical and historical questions.
A session of the People's Court, trying the conspirators of the 20 July plot, 1944. From left: General of the Infantry Hermann Reinecke; Roland Freisler, president of the court; Ernst Lautz, chief public prosecutor
About the Author
Alessia Carta is a history major at the University of Cagliari with a deep interest in exploring the past to better understand the present. Their academic focus includes Roman, Greek, medieval, modern, and contemporary European history, with a particular emphasis on the Italian peninsula and the Nuragic civilization.
