Uprising: The Battle of Hastings and the establishment of a ‘New’ England by Leah Rhiannon Savage

The year was 1066, and it began with tragedy and uncertainty. 1066 is considered as one of the most famous years in English history and for good reason. The year saw the death of two English Kings, the defeat of a Viking invasion, and the success of a Norman invasion. The death of Edward the Confessor on the 5th of January left England with no clear successor to the throne. Edward had died childless. There were a few different claimants to the English throne who believed for one reason or another that they were the next King of England. The youngest claimant to the throne in 1066 was Edgar Aetheling, a young Anglo-Saxon prince who was Edward the Confessor’s great-nephew and so could have been considered a natural heir to the throne. Edgar’s father had been named as Edward the Confessor’s heir in a previous year but had died under dubious circumstances. However, his son Edgar in his minority at 15 years old was not considered a suitable choice after Edward the Confessor’s death due to his lack of military experience and English support was placed elsewhere. However, it was Harold Godwinson who claimed the crown. As the brother-in-law to Edward the Confessor, both geographically and in terms of family relations he was closest to the deceased King. Harold Godwinson was the Early of Wessex and the richest man in the Kingdom. He had the support of the most important nobles in the country and he had been active in English politics as the King’s advisor and acting as a regent in Edward the Confessor’s absence. Edward the Confessor’s wife Edith was also Harold Godwinson’s sister and so he had strong family ties to the throne. Harold claimed that Edward had also granted England to him in a ‘deathbed promise’ making his claim to the throne the most up-to-date. Harold was supported in his claim by the English nobles, which resulted in his quick investiture the next day. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle writes of the deathbed promise and supports Harold’s claim to the throne. But that didn’t mean that Harold would keep his kingdom, or that he wouldn’t have to fight for it. Harold Godwinson’s first serious contender for the throne came from a joint attack between Tostig; Harold’s exiled brother, supported by Harald Hardrada of Norway. Hardrada was perceived as a strong militant warrior. Viking connections to the English throne also made him a promising candidate for the throne. Between the years 1015-1042 England had previously been ruled by the Danish and so by elevating Hardrada to this position it would have in fact been a restoration of English culture. Hardrada therefore, viewed the English throne as his birth right and would fight hard to obtain it. Hardrada’s claim to the throne pre-dated that of Godwinson’s as his claim was founded upon an agreement between Magnus the Good (his predecessor) and Harthacnut, King of England. The two had previously agreed that should one of them die without an heir the other would claim both countries as their own. Hardrada’s forces invaded England in early September 1066 with a fleet of over 300 ships carrying around 15,000 men. This was a serious threat to Harold Godwinson’s crown and the establishment of himself as King. A defeat from Hardrada, even one that didn’t result in Hardrada seizing the throne, could put into question Godwinson’s popularity as the King of England. A King’s perceived military strength and the idea of a King’s ‘divine right’ to rule were both essential to ensuring a King was supported during the Medieval era. Hardrada and Tostig’s joint forces seized the city of York on 20th September defeating English forces. This became known as the Battle of Gate Fulford. They then headed South with the aims of defeating Godwinson’s forces directly. The final clash of Hardrada and Godwinson’s forces happened on the 25th September 1066; The Battle of Stamford Bridge. The Battle of Stamford Bridge is a conflict that has been somewhat overlooked by history, due to the Battle of Hastings happening a mere three weeks after. Nevertheless, the Battle of Stamford Bridge should be remembered as the last time the Vikings attempted to conquer England. Before the conflict, Harold Godwinson attempted to secure his brother Tostig's support by offering him the return of his Earldom. Tostig denied this offer and continued with his support of the Viking forces. Hardrada and Tostig’s joint forces met Godwinson’s on the battlefield. The conflict concluded with an English victory due to unordinary circumstances. England on that day was experiencing a day of hot weather, and this resulted in an unusual battle decision made by the Viking army – they left their chainmail in their boats. Therefore, when Hardrada was struck by an arrow to the throat there was no armour to protect him and he died. But, the battle did not end there as Tostig was still determined to overpower his brother. Tostig called in reinforcements, but unfortunately, this wasn’t enough. Tostig too was killed in battle resulting in an English win. But the fight was far from over for Harold Godwinson and the English forces. While they had fought at Stamford Bridge, Godwinson’s next throne rival had been on his long journey to England.

Harold Godwinson’s final contender to the throne again came from abroad; William of Normandy. William was a distant cousin of Edward the Confessor. Edward had been very close to William and they had even lived together for 25 years before Edward’s coronation as King of England. William claimed that Edward had promised him the throne whilst visiting him in Normandy. This is also the claim that is supported by many of the Norman chronicles. William was also a very popular candidate for the throne and brought with him in his quest a large army. William was also supported by the Pope and so in the eyes of the many – he had the support of God in his quest. Following William’s victory against Harold, William also had to pay penance to God for his actions, despite the fact that his investiture as King of England was perceived as ‘God’s Will’. Whilst Harold Godwinson had fought Hardrada’s army at Stamford Bridge, William of Normandy had begun his journey to fight Harold Godwinson for the throne of England. Contemporary accounts of the battle estimated William’s army to consist of a fleet of 776 ships and an estimated 7000-8000 men. However, these figures are questionable due to the biased nature of the history that exists on this event. Most of the history was written by the survivors and remained pro-Norman due to William’s success. The army was comprised of predominantly infantry, around fifty percent and then the other half made up from cavalry, archers and crossbowmen. This army landed in Pevensey and made its way to combat the English forces who were travelling south following their victory over Hardrada. The English army tired and exhausted from its previous conflict, took arms on Senlac Hill on the 14th October 1066. The battle began in the early hours of the day and lasted until dusk. The weather conditions of the day were not recorded in contemporary literature, so can not be used as a factor to deduce why the battle was won or lost by either side. Harold Godwinson’s highly depleted forces were situated on hill top in a shield wall formation – standard English battle tactics for the time period. Whereas, the Norman army was grouped into three sections; these sections were organised regionally. The left hand of the army was comprised of the Bretons, and others from Anjou, Poitou and Maine, led by Alan the Red. On the righthand side of the army were predominately Frenchmen including men from Flanders, Boulogne, Picardy. At the centre of the army were the Normans who were directly led by William of Normandy. Also amongst William’s army were some strong noblemen including William FitzOsbern and Count Eustace II of Boulogne. William’s army was diverse in nature including cavalry, infantry, archers, crossbowmen, slingers and even some clergy men. The battle began with the shooting of arrows by the Norman archers, they shot up the hill at the Saxon army with the aim of weakening the Saxon shield wall and creating an opening that the cavalry and infantry could infiltrate. This was not as successful as they had hoped, and so spearmen were ordered to attack. This was also a failure and the cavalry and infantry were unable to breach the shield wall. The Saxons had the uphill advantage, despite the superior nature of the Norman army. The Norman failure in this led to panic amongst the forces, and even a false rumour that William of Normandy had been killed in battle. The cavalry began to retreat, followed by others in a panic thinking they had already lost and that their leader was dead. The English saw the forces fleeing and followed them breaking their shield wall. This was their chance! The Norman army had an opening, and in all the confusion William was reported to have rode through his forces rallying them demonstrating that he was still alive and encouraging them to continue the battle. This break of formation, gave the Norman army an unexpected advantage. They organised another feigned retreat that would further breakdown the English formation, opening up the battle to both sides. Contemporary writer of the period William of Poitier’s wrote that the Norman army conducted the feigned retreat twice and that this contributed significantly to the success of the Norma army at Hastings. Once the shield wall had been broken, the English army were left vulnerable to the Norman cavalry attack. This allowed the Normans to thin out the English housecarls, which left Harold no other option but to replace these depleting forces with members of the fyrd – untrained common men commissioned to join the fight. The Normans had the upper hand for the first time in the battle. Their success was solidified when Harold Godwinson was struck in the eye by a Norman arrow and was killed. This did not end the battle, as the Norman’s were ruthless in making sure that all of Harold’s loyal man were slain and so could not rise up against William in his claim for the throne. Harold’s death was the end of a complex and desperate situation for the ‘English King’. His loss is depicted as a cruel end to a difficult situation. Harold had a difficult reign from the beginning; having to defend his position and crown from multiple contenders. He had successfully seen of the Viking invasion, but ultimately this had weakened both him and his forces to be able to combat the Norman invasion. Historians debate whether Harold’s forces were significantly depleted enough for it to have led to their eventual defeat. Others have suggested that, it was more down to the expediency of the English troops travelling down to the south following their success at Stamford Bridge, and that had they had a few days rest between the battle that the outcome at Hastings could have been different. The length of the battle suggests otherwise, the battle lasted the entire day, which presents that the English army was strong enough to fight its cause and that it took a lot of effort to break their flanks and it was the confusion caused by the feigned retreat that led to the army weakening. Another argument is that the diverse nature of the Norman army that led to the victory. This argument deduces that once the English shield wall was broken, the English infantry were overpowered by the cavalry, archers and skilled nature of the Norman army that it was almost impossible to see an English win in these circumstances. William of Normandy was perceived as a skilled and experienced warrior and so led his army in a meticulous and organised way. With Harold’s death the Norman army were victorious in their conquest and their leader, the former William of Normandy was soon to be crowned William I of England and go down in history as William the Conqueror. After his death, Harold Godwinson’s body was brutally mutilated by his enemies, but it was reported that there were still visible marks on his body that allowed him to be formally identified by his mistress, Edith Swan-neck. He was finally laid to rest at Waltham Abbey. The day after Harold’s death his standard was first presented to William and then later to the Pope. The Norman casualties were buried in a mass grave, whilst the Saxon bodies were left on the battlefield if they weren’t identified by

Following his victory, William of Normandy sought to claim his crown. However, it wasn’t as simple as he thought. Before he could assume the throne, he had to face the objection of the English earls who had, instead of accepting William’s victory declared the young Edgar Aethling as despite his minority. This decision was supported by the Archbishop of York and other senior English earls. Despite this, William marched on London to secure his throne. He had to fight his way through, but eventually he was met with submission and finally acclaimed King of England on Christmas Day 1066 in Westminster Abbey. His reign began with hostility and there remained resistance and rebellion against his position due to feelings of xenophobia and the fear of change that the Norman control brought with it. Nevertheless, William reign England for twenty-one years. Four years after the Battle of Hastings, William was ordered by Pope Alexander II to make penance for his invasion of England in 1066. This resulted in the commission of Battle Abbey built on the site of the Hastings conflict. The Abbey still exists in the modern day which is a tourist attraction for those interested in the history. The exhibition of Battle Abbey includes a gatehouse as well as sculptures of Saxon and Norman troops to illustrate the battle. The Battle of Hastings has gone down in history as a battle that changed the English landscape and culture. England went through a period of transition from a Saxon rule, to a foreign aristocracy and the blending of Anglo-Norman communities. The Battle of Hastings changed history and changes the socio-political identity of England for the next 100 years. The establishment of Norman culture in England adapted the economic and military identity of England. English language also had a significant transformation and modification. Prior to Hastings, England had been ruled by Anglo-Saxons or the Danish – now there were Anglo-Norman citizens ruled by a Norman King. The success at Hastings was merely the beginning of the Norman Conquest and major political changes for England. William’s success destroyed English connections with the Danes and realigned English foreign policy to work closer with France. Anglo-French relations would continue to be strong or in major conflict for centuries afterwards. Changes in agriculture, military service and infrastructure were crucial to the establishment of Norman culture in England. This includes the erection of castles including the Tower of London, changes in the political and religious structures in the country. The majority of high-status roles of course going to Norman nobles to ensure their loyalty to the new king. The Battle of Hastings and the Norman Conquest are famous historic events that are still a prominent historical talking point in the contemporary, and still key events that are studied in schools across the United Kingdom. From William the Bastard to William King of England, the Conqueror and Conquest that changed a nation forever.