Chariot Racing & Circus Factions in Byzantium by Christopher Fray

Chariot racing and circuses had been a staple of Roman entertainment since the beginning. Imperial Roman historian Livy believed that the ancient king Tarquinius Priscus was the first to set out the Circus Maximus in Rome. Chariot racing was probably inherited from the Etruscans as a funerary event although little evidence survives to prove this. We might look to Book 23 of The Iliad for a good description for what the earliest chariot races were like. Although we view the Iliad as fiction, the Greeks did not and they would certainly have been familiar with chariot races as a sporting concept due to the numerous Pan-Hellenic games hosted in Greece. ‘The horses raced off quickly, galloping swiftly from the ships. Under their chests dust came up, hanging there like storm clouds in a whirlwind. In the rushing air their manes streamed back. The chariots, at one moment, would skim across the nourishing earth, then, at another, would bounce high in the air. Their drivers stood up in the chariots, hearts pounding, as they strove for victory.’ The Circus Maximus was in constant use under the Roman Republic, with adornments added by leading Romans including Julius Caesar. The races were an important place for politicians to present themselves to the public, improving public buildings and facilities in order to acquire popularity. This continued into the Empire and as time went by, the Circus Maximus grew in size and in grandeur. During this period, there were four chariot racing teams; the Blues, Greens, Reds and Whites. After the centre of the Roman Empire moved east to Constantinople, and with the transition of the state religion to Christianity, bloody gladiatorial combat became unfashionable and regarded as a pagan blood-letting ritual. It was quickly dropped from public performances. Chariot racing and circuses continued and became the most important social activity in Byzantium. Chariot racing could be an equally bloody affair. Just like the gladiators, charioteers were slaves who were willing to risk their lives for considerable wealth, fame and possibly even freedom. As entertainers, charioteers were considered by the Romans to be on the lowest rung in society, but also and quite contradictorily for modern sensibilities, the biggest celebrities of their day. They straddled a rather uncomfortable position of being loved and loathed at the same time.

Byzantine races took place in the Hippodrome, in the heart of Constantinople. The space still exists in modern-day Istanbul, now called Sultanahmet Square and retains the oblong shape of the racetrack. The Hippodrome was about 450m in length and could contain up to 50,000 spectators, although this is still debated. Down the centre of the track was the spina, a set of columns and monuments the chariots would race around. Some of the monuments are still in place, such as the Serpent Column, cast in bronze in 5th Century BC and dedicated to the victory of the Greeks over the Persians. This was brought to Constantinople by Constantine from Delphi, Greece. The chariots would race at speeds of up to 40mph, attempting to overtake or overturn their competitors. Inevitably, collisions occurred with deadly consequences. There were always teams in the sidelines, ready to pull injured or dead charioteers and broken chariots off the course, ready for the next race. The races took place on specific festival days and lasted from morning until evening. In one race day, there could be up to 24 separate races. Each chariot was usually pulled by four horses harnessed side by side. The charioteer was exceptionally well trained and athletic. He would have needed a strategic mind just as much as the use of his muscles. The horses which were especially bred for racing were extremely quick, as well as being powerful enough to physically intimidate and overpower their competitor’s horses. Whether audiences came because of the love of the sport, for the chance to see a crash or just for a fun day out, there is no denying that the people of Byzantium came out in droves for the races and entertainment. The clamour, cheering and excitement of the Hippodrome must have been astonishing. Chariot racing was not the only type of entertainment the factions provided for the public. In between the fast-paced and violent races, the Factions also provided an array of spectacles and attractions such as dancing, mime and musical performances, acrobatics and wild animal acts. Not much is known of the pantomime and mime performances, but they would often include salacious or erotic elements. They could also be funny, satirical and even on occasion led to violence. In 502, Anastasios I banned dancing from the Hippodrome for this reason and even had the dancers exiled. One of the most famous Circus entertainers in Constantinople was in fact Empress Theodora, who married Emperor Justinian in 527AD. Theodora was born to a poor family connected to the Greens Faction. Her father was a bear-keeper for the Hippodrome and when Theodora grew older, she became a dancer and performer. ‘She was extremely clever and had a biting wit, and quickly became popular as a result,’ writes Procopius in ‘The Secret History.’ It was probably during her time performing that Justinian first saw the future Empress. In order to marry Theodora, Justinian was forced to change the Roman law which forbade senators from marrying actresses. As well as a variety of performances, audiences would have had access to food and drink in the local taverns. Spectators would have been able to buy fish caught from the Bosphorus, just as you can still do in Istanbul today. Sausages, olive oil, honey and wine would also have been consumed, along with fermented fish sauce called Garos. We can imagine it being a highly festive (and pungent) atmosphere; alive with competition, alcohol and excitement.

Byzantine chariot racing saw the continuation of the four teams of the Western Empire, however two teams stood out from the rest in wealth, power and support: the Blues and the Greens. The rivalry between the teams was fierce and potentially life threatening, with fans willing to live and die for their team. Groups of faction-militias would fight regularly with opposing teams and it was not uncommon for charioteers connected to rival Factions to be beaten or even poisoned before races. As Procopius tells us in his ‘History of the Wars,’ ‘the population has been divided for a long time past into the Blue and the Green factions… they fight against their opponents knowing not for what end they imperil themselves, but knowing well that, even if they overcome their enemy in the fight, the conclusion of the matter for them will be to be carried off straightway to the prison.’ Apart from the poisoning, this may be reminiscent of extreme football fans around the world today, except for one key factor. The Factions were deeply involved in current political and religious movements as well. The heads of these Factions acted as part-local councillor and part-gangster. They protected and provided for their members, whist attacking and abusing their rivals in public. Each Faction had links to politicians and lobbied the government on different issues, even supporting claimants to the Byzantine throne at various times. In religious matters, they were also divided. In general the Blues stood for religious orthodoxy and the status quo. The Greens were more a social party and stood for Monophysitism (a form of Christianity at the time of Justinian which opposed the orthodoxy). Although it is hard to imagine modern day football fans fighting over interpretations of the Bible, we have to remember that these were incredibly contentious issues in 5th and 6th century Byzantium, and for the Factions, worth fighting and even dying over. In general, the Factions acted as a social mouthpiece for the people of Byzantium. They were able, as a group, to appeal directly to the Emperor at chariot races, in public, opening up a direct channel of communication between the public and the Emperor. There were occasions when the public took the races as an opportunity to show displeasure with the Emperor. Rioting had always been an element of Roman protest. However with Factions set up as proto-political militia groups, the stakes for rioting in Byzantium was on another level. In 532AD, at a period where rivalries between the Blues and the Greens and discontent with Justinian and his tax reforms were at their peak, one particular inter-faction brawl turned into a bloody riot. Protestors from both sides chanted, ‘Nika, Nika’ (‘Victory, Victory’), at the royal couple, Justinian and Theodora who watched from their viewing box. This was usually a chant reserved for the crowd’s favoured charioteer but this time, it was shouted with more sinister intentions. With the crowd in a frenzy, the royal couple retreated to the confines of the palace and the crowd began a rampage through the city, burning buildings including the newly build Hagia Sophia church and even attacking Justinian’s palace. The riots continued for five destructive days. There is no doubt that the politicians and senators with connections to the Factions will have stirred the pot, inciting rebellion against Justinian. Many of them were enraged with the newly raised taxes under Justinian’s tax official, John the Cappadocian. Procopius tells us that Justinian was terrified and, during the heat of the rioting, considered escaping Constantinople to save his life. It is here that Theodora shows her steel and determination as Empress. She says to her husband, ‘If, now, it is your wish to save yourself, O Emperor, there is no difficulty. For we have much money, and there is the sea, here the boats. However consider whether it will not come about after you have been saved that you would gladly exchange that safety for death. For as for myself, I approve a certain ancient saying that royalty is a good burial-shroud.’ Justinian, taking encouragement from his wife’s stirring words, ordered the Imperial guards to suppress the rioters, which they did ruthlessly. According to Procopius, 30,000 people were killed in the riots and Justinian executed leading rioters and implicated senators alike. The Factions expressed the public will, sometimes through violence and even the Emperor could not afford to ignore the Factions as political bodies. They needed to be heard and pacified with gold and favour to keep order in the city. The Factions were not only dangerous to the Byzantine state, however. There were occasions that Byzantium relied on the Factions and the people for protection. One of these moments was the rebuilding of the Theodosian Walls. In 448, a particularly destructive earthquake damaged large parts of the walls of Constantinople, including multiple towers. This was potentially devastating for the city, as the walls were the true bulwark against sieges and attempted invasions from all sides. In particular, Attila the Hun was pushing into Byzantine lands from the Balkans. Under the Prefect, Constantinus, Theodosius II ordered that the walls be rebuilt. Constantinus cunningly used the Faction’s competitiveness for the greater good. Each of the Factions were given a section of destroyed wall to repair and to recruit as many of their supporters as possible. 16,000 fans were recruited in all. They repaired and even bolstered some areas in 60 days, effectively saving the city from invasion through their allegiance, not to the state, but to their beloved team. The factions could make or break the Emperor of Byzantium, reminding him that whatever power he had was only too temporary. Mass political protest had a place in Byzantium and the power of the people was not something any Emperor could underestimate. Power without the people in Constantinople did not exist. Factions were able to mobilise large amounts of people, quickly and significantly influence public opinion, proving themselves to be astute and influential political bodies. It was essential that the Emperor attended the races and took an interest in the teams because the races embodied his connection to the public. It was a crucial opportunity to show the people of Byzantium that the Emperor was present and connected to their lives. It was also an opportunity for the Emperor to gauge the general mood of the population. This balancing act was essential for a steady and balanced rule. Emperors came and went, but in Byzantium, the Blues and Greens were eternal.