The Collapse of the British Empire by John Gartside

It is extraordinary to think that a small island nation once controlled nearly a quarter of the world’s population and landmass. This simply illustrates the sheer magnitude of the British Empire. The journey of the British Empire is fascinating, in how the use of naval power built an empire spanning all 4 corners of the globe. However, there were always signs of discontent and trouble in the Empire, culminating in its eventual collapse. From the thirteen colonies in 1776 to the Nation of Brunei in 1984, decolonisation was an evident and actual possibility for many areas under British rule. In this article, I will guide you through what I would call the mass decolonisation of the British Empire, in which over the course of the early to late-twentieth century Britain granted independence to over 60 countries it ruled. Despite each region being different, many overarching characteristics contributed to the collapse of the British Empire. Since the American Revolution in the 1760’s, it had become clear to the British government that not all people in the Empire were happy with the Imperial system of ruling. Therefore, unrest and discontent occurred in nearly all colonies. This is evident in the fall of the ‘first’ British empire, when the thirteen colonies transitioned to becoming the independent United States of America over discontent around colonial rule and in particular taxation. This discontent of being ruled from London was further seen under the British Raj. Mahatma Gandhi led several civil disobedience campaigns such as the Salt March, which helped to contribute to the Indian independence movement, by forcing the British government to act as a result of their annoyance over disobedience. Whilst discontent with the colonial system was a constant factor for decolonisation, the mass decolonisation of the twentieth century was also largely a result of the Second World War. During the twentieth century's most destructive conflict, the British Empire played a key role in helping the Allied forces against the Nazi led Axis force. Firstly, the economic effect of the Second World War put the British Empire in huge jeopardy. The cost of the Second World War was far greater than the government had expected, and thus the government’s view on the viability of an Empire. Therefore, this weakened economic position raised great doubt over whether they could afford to run the largest empire in written history. Secondly, the British Government further showed signs that the empire was going to be dismantled after the Second World War as a result of international influence. In 1941 Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter alongside Franklin D. Roosevelt, declaring that nationals should be free from the constraints of an empire. In addition, the fall of several British colonies in Southeast Asia to the Japanese Imperial Army, raised nationalist beliefs stoking these colonies fire for independence.

Indian Independence: Similar to all colonies, Indian independence was a gradual process, starting with the Government of India Act in 1919. This marked the first step towards self-government through creating elected local regional governments. Further events such as the Amritsar massacre in 1919, and unrest from citizens, led to the Government of India Act of 1935. The act specifically created an Indian reserve bank, and gave further power to the Indian people through elections, marking a closer step to independence. In 1942 Mahatma Gandhi started his Quit India Campaign of unrest and protests, furthering the movement for Indian independence. Then in 1945, Indian independence was granted before the infamous partition of India in 1947 by Viceroy Louis Mountbatten which divided the Indian subcontinent into the Republic of India and the Dominion of Pakistan.  White Settler Colonies: This next element of the British Empire saw independence and self-ruling before other colonies. These were colonies predominately inhabited by British migrants. These colonies were Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and the Irish Free State. The independence of these colonies was gradually achieved through several acts and statutes from Westminster. The Balfour Declaration of 1926, was one of the first examples of independence for the white settler colonies. In this report -named after former Prime Minister and Foreign Secretary - Britain and its dominions (the white settler colonies) were declared constitutionally equal. This report was engraved into the law, by the Statute of Westminster 1931, which marked the start of modern colonialism by declaring the equal status of Britain and its dominions. Despite this, each dominion was different to the other in its path towards independence. All of the ‘white settler colonies’ however achieved self-governance and formed independence the earliest of all the colonies. Yet despite achieving self-governance earliest, their official independence came late. For Canada, it took until 1982 to adopt its constitution, and 1986 for Australia to similarly achieve full independence.  Ireland: Despite its proximity to London, Ireland had one of the most challenging and eventful battles to gain independence. Nationalist sentiment had long existed in Ireland, boiling into the formation of the Irish Republican Army (IRA). Between 1919-21, the IRA fought a guerrilla war against the British in Ireland, which was started after Sinn Fein declared Irish Independence after their huge win in the 1919 elections. The conflict lasted until 1921 when a military stalemate and the Anglo-Irish treaty were issued. Under the Anglo-Irish treaty, the Irish Free State was created, which became a dominion of the British Empire. The treaty caused further dissent, as disagreements over the newly established Irish Free State, fueled the Irish Civil War. The Irish Free State made more steps towards self-governance with the 27th Amendment which removed the role of the Crown. The ultimate step was on 29 December 1937 when the Constitution of Ireland was adopted, which removed the vast majority of British power in Ireland. However, it was not until April 1949, when after many years of struggle, the Republic of Ireland Act transferred diplomatic powers to the President, resulting in their full independence. Ireland’s story for independence, is especially distinct from the other colonies in the Empire. Rather than the reasons being a result of war and its financial implications, it was wholly because of resistance to the British. This mirrored the anti colonial sentiment and havoc of the American revolution, signifying that independence would be given if enough calamity was created. Africa: One of Britain's largest colonial possessions was its spread of colonies throughout the African continent, known as being from 'Cape to Cairo'. Tensions between the colonies and their British rulers had always been high, evident in the frequent warring activity. These tensions however peaked after the Second World War, as a result of growing sentiment over independence. This movement, known as Pan-Africanism included individuals such as Marcus Garvey, who advocated for African nationalism and independence. Decolonisation from the British Empire was first seen in Ghana (the Gold Coast), which after the political success of the Convention People’s Party, gained independence in 1957. Despite this, the decolonisation of British colonies in Africa was fueled by Harold Macmillan’s ‘Wind of Change’ speech in February 1960. This momentous speech signaled that they wouldn’t prevent the independence of any African colony. From this moment, independence was granted to the majority of colonies. After the tension of the Mau Mau rebellion and the three Lancaster House conferences, Kenya was granted independence on 12 December 1963. Similarly, before 1968, the majority of British colonies and protectorates in Africa gained independence through acts of parliament. However, after 1968 Southern Rhodesia was still colonised, this colony one of the most economically valuable, one the last to be granted independence in April 1980. It is also important to mention South Africa’s fascinating story of independence. Following the two Boer wars, in 1909 the South African Act unified the 4 colonies in South Africa, to make the Union of South Africa. Furthermore, the act made the Union of South Africa, a dominion within the British Empire. After a referendum on the 5 October 1960, the South African people voted to withdraw from the commonwealth, and the Republic of South Africa was established.  South East Asia: The major catalyst for independence in this region was the Second World War. By February 1942, Malaya and Singapore had fallen to the Imperial Japanese army, and the end of the empire in the region seemed inevitable. Furthermore, the cost of the war made the idea of running an empire in Southeast Asia an even more remote possibility than it was previously. Alongside nationalist attitudes which were multiplied by the Japanese invasion, Britain’s Southeast Asian empire was a decreasing reality. Burma was quick to achieve independence after the war in 1948, as of the instrumental work of Aung Sun. However, Malaysia was engrossed by the Malayan emergency, a guerrilla war for independence lasting over a decade. Despite the British forces being able to suppress the fighting, Prime Minister Harold MacMillan acknowledged the strong nationalist and anti-colonial sentiment, thus granting Malaysia independence on the 31 of August 1957. Despite this, British interests still lasted in the region until 1982, when Brunei transitioned from being a British protectorate to a sovereign state. 

The legacy of the British Empire is still prominent across the globe. The most obvious example is the English language, and how the language of a small island nation became the world's most spoken language through colonialism. Moreover, the economic success and forefront international political position of Britain today is a direct result of its empire. Despite, the discontent to leave the British Empire, Britain and its former colonies appear to be in union and happiness under the Commonwealth. This organisation, which is a platform for exchange between former members of the British Empire, is a coveted international organisation and a symbol of Britain's continued international influence.